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.NewYork: Oxford University Press.23.Wyner, H.Unpublished."The Defining Characteristics of the HealthyHuman Mind."24.I am grateful to Dan Goleman for suggesting this terminology to make clearmy thinking about this.25.Goldie, The Emotions.See page 65.26.Schooler, J.W.2001."Discovering memories of abuse in light of meta-awareness." Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 4: 105 36,5: Sadness and Agony1.We used the word distress instead of agony, but subsequent research suggestedthat distress covers more than agony; there is a fear element as well.Ekman,P.& Friesen, W.V.1975- Unmasking the Face: A Guide to Recognizing Emo-tions from Facial Clues.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.2.Rynearson, E.K.1981."Suicide internalized: An existential sequestrum."American Journal of Psychiatry, 138: 84-87-3.Vingershoets, A.J.J.M., Cornelius, R.R., Van Heck, G.L.& Becht, M.C.2000."Adult crying: A model and review of the literature." Review of Gen-eral Psychology, 4: 354.4.Ekman, P., Matsumoto, D.& Friesen, W.V.1997."Facial expression inaffective disorders." In P.Ekman & E.L.Rosenberg (eds.), What the FaceReveals: Basic and Applied Studies of Spontaneous Expression Using the Facial-Action Coding System (FACS).New York: Oxford University Press.My firstresearch grant supported my studies of patients with mental disorders, but atthat time I had no way to measure facial behavior and so focused simply onbody movements.The results I described here were obtained twenty yearslater, after we had developed the Facial Action Coding System described inchapter 1, In the mid-1960s, influenced by Silvan Tomkins, and with thefunding to do cross-cultural research, I left the study of psychiatric patients tofocus on emotions themselves, rather than emotional disorders.When I turnedaway from studying mental patients, we had neither the tools nor the basicknowledge about emotion to do research on severely disturbed patients.Fortu-nately, a number of investigators, using our Facial Action Coding System andother tools for measuring patients' facial and vocal expressions, are now doingsuch work; a number of examples are reported in What the Face Reveals.6-.Anger1.Sternberg, C.R., & Campos, J.J.1990."The development of anger expres-sions in infancy." In N.L.Stein, B.Leventhal, & T.Trabasso (eds.), Psycho-logical and Biological Approaches to Emotions.Hillsdale, N.J.: LawrenceErlbaum Associates.See pages 247-82. 2.Berkowitz, L.1969."The frustration-aggression hypothesis revisited." InL.Berkowitz (ed.), Roots of Aggression.New York: Atherton Press.See pages1-28.3.My daughter Eve asked His Holiness, the Dalai Lama why we get angry withthose we love, and he offered this explanation.4.For an interesting discussion of the costs from an evolutionary viewpoint, seeMcGuire, M.& Troisi, A.1990."Anger: An evolutionary view." In R.Plutchik & H.Kellerman (eds.), Emotion, Psychopathology and Psychotherapy.New York: Academic Press.5.Joseph Campos, University of California, Berkeley, and Mark Greenberg,Pennsylvania State University.2000.Personal communication.6.Holden, C.2000."The violence of the lambs." Science, 289: 580-81.7.Konner, M.2001.The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the HumanSpirit.2nd edition.New York: Henry Holt.See chapter 9.8.For a discussion of the role of genetic inheritance and environment in aggres-sive behavior, see Plomin, R., Nitz, K.& Rowe, D.C.1990."Behavioralgenetics and aggressive behavior in childhood." In M.Lewis & S.Miller(eds.), Handbook of Developmental Psychopathology.New York: Plenum.Alsosee Miles, D.R.& Carey, G.1997."Genetic and environmental architectureof human aggression." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72:207-17.9.Dalai Lama.Personal communication, 2001.See also Goleman, D.2003.Destructive Emotions: How Can We Overcome Them?.New York: BantamBooks.10.Tavris, C.1989.Anger: The Misunderstood Emotion.New York: Touch-stone Books.11.Ibid.See pages 125-27.12.McGuire and Troisi, "Anger."13.Lemerise, E.& Dodge, K.2000."The development of anger and hostileinteractions." In M.Lewis & J.Haviland-Jones (eds.), Handbook of Emotions.2nd edition.New York: The Guilford Press.See pages 594-606.14.McGuire and Troisi, "Anger."15.Gottman, J.M.& Levenson, R.W.1999."How stable is marital interactionover time?" Family Processes, 38: 159-65.16.Lazarus, R.1991.Emotion and Adaptation.New York: Oxford University Press.17.Goleman, Destructive Emotions.18.See Izard, C.1972.Patterns of Emotions.San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press.On depression and anger, see Harmon-Jones, E."Individual differences inanterior brain activity and anger: Examining the roles of attitude towardanger and depression." Under review.19.Harmon-Jones, "Individual differences."20.Chesney, M.A., Ekman, P., Friesen, W.V., Black, G.W.& Hecker,M.H.L.1990."Type A behavior pattern: Facial behavior and speech com-ponents." Psychosomatic Medicine, 53: 307-19.21.Rosenberg, E.L., Ekman, P., Jiang, W., Babyak, M., Coleman, R.E., Han- son, M., O'Connor, C, Waugh, R.& Blumenthal, J.A.2001."Linkagesbetween facial expressions of emotion in transient myocardial ischemia."Emotion, 1: 107-15.Rosenberg, E.L., Ekman, P.& Blumenthal, J.A.1998."Facial expression and the affective component of cynical hostility." HealthPsychology, 17: 376-80.22.Barefoot, J.C, Dahlstrom, W.G.& Williams, R.B.1983."Hostility,CHD incidence, and total mortality: A 25-year follow-up study of 255physicians." Psychosomatic Medicine, 45: 59-63.Williams, R.B., Haney,L.T., Lee, K.L., Kong, Y., Blumenthal, J.& Whalen, R.1980."Type Abehavior, hostility, and coronary atherosclerosis." Psychosomatic Medicine,42: 539-49.Ironson, B., Taylor, C.B., Boltwood, M., Bartzokis, T., Den-nis, G, Chesney, M., Spitzer, S.& Segall, G.M.1992."Effects of anger onleft ventricular ejection fraction in coronary artery disease." American Jour-nal of Cardiology, 70: 281-85.Mittleman, M.A., Maclure, M., Sherwood,J.B., Mulry, R.P., Tofler, G.H., Jacobs, S.C., Friedman, R., Benson, H.&Muller, J.E.1995."Triggering of acute myocardial onset by episodes:Determinants of myocardial infarction onset study investigators." Circula-tion, 92: 1720-25.Rosenberg, "Linkages."23.Ekman, P.1979."About brows: Emotional and conversational signals." InM.von Cranach, K.Foppa, W.Lepenies, & D.Ploog (eds.), Human Ethol-ogy.New York: Cambridge University Press.See pages 169 248.24.See Helena Cronin's excellent book, The Ant and the Peacock: Altruism andSexual Selection from Darwin to Today.1991.New York: Cambridge Univer-sity Press.25.Correctional Service of Canada report, as cited by Gayla Swihart, John Yuille,& Stephen Porter in The Role of State-Dependent Memory in "Red-Outs."26.Laura Helmuth's report of the findings of University of New Hampshiresociologist Murray Straus in Helmuth, L.2000."Has America's tide of vio-lence receded for good?" Science, 289: 585.27.Davidson, R.J., Putnam, K.M.& Larson, C.L.2000."Dysfunction in theneural circuitry of emotion regulation a possible prelude to violence." Sci-ence, 289: 591-94.28.Raine, A.1970
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